[91] In 1824, after more deposits of the same mineral in Vest-Agder, Norway, were discovered, he retracted his findings, as the mineral (later named xenotime) proved to be mostly yttrium orthophosphate. The electronic configurations of the actinides utilize the f sublevel, with the exception of lawrencium, a d-block element. [a] Thorium is estimated to be over three times as abundant as uranium in the Earth's crust, and is chiefly refined from monazite sands as a by-product of extracting rare-earth metals. [169], Thorium is odourless and tasteless. For the reaction of Actinium (III) hydroxide with hydrofluoric acid, a) write and balance the equation and b) explain what makes the O.S. Because the two pertinent decay processes result either in no change or in a change of four units in the mass number, the mass numbers of all the members of each series are divisible by four, with a constant remainder. [40][41], Despite the anomalous electron configuration for gaseous thorium atoms, metallic thorium shows significant 5f involvement. It was hypothesized that the 233U would then be usable in a gun-type weapon, though concerns about contamination from 232U were voiced. Therefore, radium occurs naturally only as a disintegration product in the three natural radioactive decay series (thorium, uranium, and actinium series). The team bioengineered nature's most potent protein (lanmodulin) for lanthanides natural elements used in numerous items like computer hard drives and magnets to make it even more selective for actinide elements. but only fluorides are in above +4. of Actinium different than the other Actinides. Powers pacemakers for the heart. { "1General_Properties_and_Reactions_of_The_Actinides" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Americium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Berkelium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Californium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Curium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Einsteinium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Fermium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Lawrencium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Mendelevium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Neptunium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Nobelium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Plutonium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Protoactinium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Thorium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", Chemistry_of_Uranium : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()" }, { The_Actinides : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()", The_Lanthanides : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass230_0.b__1]()" }, General Properties and Reactions of The Actinides, [ "article:topic", "solubility", "precipitation", "Rare Earth Metals", "Actinide", "transition metal", "Actinide series", "showtoc:no", "Gamma Rays", "halides", "Uranium", "Nuclear Fission", "Alpha Particles", "Beta Particles", "Klaproth", "Berezelius", "license:ccbyncsa", "licenseversion:40" ], https://chem.libretexts.org/@app/auth/3/login?returnto=https%3A%2F%2Fchem.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FInorganic_Chemistry%2FSupplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)%2FDescriptive_Chemistry%2FElements_Organized_by_Block%2F4_f-Block_Elements%2FThe_Actinides%2F1General_Properties_and_Reactions_of_The_Actinides, \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}}}\) \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{#1}}} \)\(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)\(\newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\). [112] 10,000 individuals in the United States had been injected with thorium during X-ray diagnosis; they were later found to suffer health issues such as leukaemia and abnormal chromosomes. The latest element on the periodic table have not been found in nature. Actinium and Protactinium are found in small portions in nature, as decay products of 253-Uranium and 238-Uranium. E.g Oxygen-15 ( Isotopes of oxygen ) is. In the periodic table, it lies to the right of actinium, to the left of protactinium, and below cerium. The bulk of actinide use goes to energy production and defense operations. Berzelius had already discovered two elements, cerium and selenium, but he had made a public mistake once, announcing a new element, gahnium, that turned out to be zinc oxide. The Pa metal is malleable, ductile, silvery, and has a melting point of about 1565. Although relatively little of those products are created as the result of the slow decay of thorium, a proper assessment of the radiological toxicity of 232Th must include the contribution of its daughters, some of which are dangerous gamma emitters,[170] and which are built up quickly following the initial decay of 232Th due to the absence of long-lived nuclides along the decay chain. [42][f] Thorium and uranium are the most investigated of the radioactive elements because their radioactivity is low enough not to require special handling in the laboratory. These elements, usually considered ranging from atomic number 89 to atomic number 103 on the periodic table, have interesting properties, and play a key role in nuclear chemistry. Not sure about the geography of the middle east? Technetium - Wikipedia It is a phosphate ore that contains great amounts of Lanthanides in it. Monazite is the principle Thorium ore. Gamma rays (\(\gamma\)) are radiation that is emitted when the nucleus is in an excited state due to excess energy. It exhibits O.S. Uranium ores with low thorium concentrations can be purified to produce gram-sized thorium samples of which over a quarter is the 230Th isotope, since 230Th is one of the daughters of 238U. The nucleus of Uranium emits radioactivity in the form of alpha particles. The halides are very important binary compounds, sometimes the most important. Periodic Table Of The Elements Polonium | Encyclopedia.com Click the answer to find similar crossword clues . Uranium (V): rare oxidation states, unstable, six and seven coordination. Location To save this word, you'll need to log in. [141] Secondary materials (such as coastal sands) undergo gravity separation. Learn a new word every day. This leaves a margin of 0.45 neutrons (or 18% of the neutron flux) for losses. [171], Tests on the thorium uptake of workers involved in monazite processing showed thorium levels above recommended limits in their bodies, but no adverse effects on health were found at those moderately low concentrations. Berkelium was synthesized at and is named after the . The metal is a slivery, ductile and very malleable. They don't fit well into the periodic table. Due to its intense radioactivity, Actinium glows in the dark with a pale blue light. )[162] These impurities of 232U make 233U easy to detect and dangerous to work on, and the impracticality of their separation limits the possibilities of nuclear proliferation using 233U as the fissile material. Increasing the temperature also speeds up the reaction, but temperatures of 300C and above must be avoided, because they cause insoluble thorium pyrophosphate to form. For example, following alkaline digestion and the removal of phosphate, the resulting nitrato complexes of thorium, uranium, and the rare earths can be separated by extraction with tributyl phosphate in kerosene. When you visit the site, Dotdash Meredith and its partners may store or retrieve information on your browser, mostly in the form of cookies. These elements all have a high diversity in oxidation numbers and all are radioactive. Our editors update and regularly refine this enormous body of information to bring you reliable information. )[81] Its decay accounts for a gradual decrease of thorium content of the Earth: the planet currently has around 85% of the amount present at the formation of the Earth. Because they are not as big or massive as alpha particles, they are deflected more strongly than alpha particles are. [102] The existence of a second inner transition series, in the form of the actinides, was not accepted until similarities with the electron structures of the lanthanides had been established;[113] Bohr suggested that the filling of the 5f orbitals may be delayed to after uranium. Actinide - Wikipedia Natural Decay Series of Uranium-238 Source: http://www.ocrwm.doe.gov/curriculum/unit2/lesson2reading.shtml Radioactivity | Definition, Types, Applications, & Facts The primary use of the actinide elements is as nuclear reactor fuel and in the production of nuclear weapons. The exact size of those reserves has not been publicly disclosed, but it is estimated to be enough to meet the country's total energy needs for more than 20,000 years. Answer (1 of 4): Nope, certainly not. Infoplease is part of the Sandbox Learning family of educational and reference sites for parents, teachers and students. Thorium can be precipitated from ammonia with aluminum or from aluminum as a fluoride or oxalate. The filling of the 5f subshell from the beginning of the actinide series was confirmed in 1964 when the next element, The thirteen fissile actinide isotopes with half-lives over a year are, Th(-I) and U(-I) have been detected in the gas phase as octacarbonyl anions; see, Negre, Csar et al. Pure thorium is very ductile and, as normal for metals, can be cold-rolled, swaged, and drawn. [146], During the production of incandescent filaments, recrystallisation of tungsten is significantly lowered by adding small amounts of thorium dioxide to the tungsten sintering powder before drawing the filaments. [76], Thorium is the 41st most abundant element in the Earth's crust. Plutonium and Uranium are used as nuclear fuels and in weaponry. views 3,318,743 updated May 23 2018. polonium (symbol Po) Rare radioactive metallic element of group VI of the periodic table, discovered in 1898 by Polish-born French scientist Marie Curie. The scheme has a range of several hundred thousand years. Actinide series Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster Radium - Wikipedia The presence of titanium hydroxide is deleterious as it binds thorium and prevents it from dissolving fully. Aluminium's is 75.2GPa; copper's 137.8GPa; and mild steel's is 160169GPa. The neptunium series is named for its longest-lived member, neptunium-237; it ends with bismuth-209. It has the symbol Fm and atomic number 100. The precipitates are neutralised by the original sodium hydroxide solution, although most of the phosphate must first be removed to avoid precipitating rare-earth phosphates. The +3 and +4 O.S. [63] These thorium salts are known for their high solubility in water and polar organic solvents. Learn more about the mythic conflict between the Argives and the Trojans. Actinides require special handling, because many of them are radioactive and/or unstable. 235U occurs naturally and is also fissile. The reason for this arrangement unlike other conventional electron configurations such as Na with configuration of [Ne]3s2. [102], It was only with the discovery of the first transuranic elements, which from plutonium onward have dominant +3 and +4 oxidation states like the lanthanides, that it was realised that the actinides were indeed filling f-orbitals rather than d-orbitals, with the transition-metal-like chemistry of the early actinides being the exception and not the rule. 25 Nuclear Chemistry. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Molybdenum is a transition metal, placing it in the center of the periodic table. Radon is a radioactive gas, non-metal element. 89) is not always considered a member of the series. Beta particles are deflected by the electric and magnetic fields in the opposite direction from alpha particles. Some can be cut with a knife. At the start of period 7, from francium to thorium, the melting points of the elements increase (as in other periods), because the number of delocalised electrons each atom contributes increases from one in francium to four in thorium, leading to greater attraction between these electrons and the metal ions as their charge increases from one to four. The 5f orbitals do not shield each other from the nucleus effectively. The addition of 1% cerium dioxide, as in gas mantles, heightens the effect by increasing emissivity in the visible region of the spectrum; but because cerium, unlike thorium, can occur in multiple oxidation states, its charge and hence visible emissivity will depend on the region on the flame it is found in (as such regions vary in their chemical composition and hence how oxidising or reducing they are). In 1932, most of these uses were banned in the United States after a federal investigation into the health effects of radioactivity. [b], The properties of thorium vary widely depending on the degree of impurities in the sample. They are concentrated, but of small size. [157] It is particularly suitable for being used as fertile material in molten salt reactors. [51] Public interest in radioactivity had declined by the end of the 1930s. metalloids ____have both metallic and nonmetallic properties. It is more stable chemically than the now-common fuel uranium dioxide, because the latter oxidises to triuranium octoxide (U3O8), becoming substantially less dense. At the bottom of the periodic table is a special group of metallic radioactive elements called actinides or actinoids. [83] Allanite (chiefly silicates-hydroxides of various metals) can have 0.12% thorium and zircon (chiefly zirconium silicate, ZrSiO4) up to 0.4% thorium. These two rows of elements are placed below the main table because they don't fit into the design without making the table confusing and very wide. With the later recognition that the rare earths were mostly trivalent and thorium was tetravalent, Mendeleev moved cerium and thorium to group IV in 1871, which also contained the modern carbon group (group 14) and titanium group (group 4), because their maximum oxidation state was +4. Plutonium - Wikipedia [176] People who work with thorium compounds are at a risk of dermatitis. [65] This compound was shown to be surprisingly stable, unlike many previous known aromatic metal clusters. Dr. Helmenstine holds a Ph.D. in biomedical sciences and is a science writer, educator, and consultant. Although one methyl group is only attached to the thorium atom (ThC distance 257.1pm) and the other six connect the lithium and thorium atoms (ThC distances 265.5276.5pm), they behave equivalently in solution. The actinide (/ k t n a d /) or actinoid (/ k t n d /) series encompasses the 15 metallic chemical elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103, actinium through lawrencium.The actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium. What makes the Actinides you answered in the first questions different than the rest? [58] Thorium reacts with hydrogen to form the thorium hydrides ThH2 and Th4H15, the latter of which is superconducting below 7.58K; at standard temperature and pressure, it conducts electricity like a metal. In the 1950s, India targeted achieving energy independence with their three-stage nuclear power programme. Corium and Radioactivity After the Chernobyl Nuclear Meltdown, Facts About Plutonium (Pu or Atomic Number 94), Topics Typically Covered in Grade 11 Chemistry. Thorium tetrafluoride is used as an anti-reflection material in multilayered optical coatings. It reacts slowly with cold water, faster with dilute H, It was first made in 1944-1945 by Seaborg and his coworkers, where they decayed. It can also react with many other compounds at certain temperatures to make halides, oxides, and other compounds, including the following: 235U + 1n 236U fission fragments + neutrons + 3.20 x10-11 J. Actinides are radioactive metals that are present in nuclear waste, such as uranium, plutonium and americium. They all form binary compounds, such as trihalides. Updates? Monazite obtained by this method can be as pure as 98%. [144] According to the 2005 review by the United Kingdom's National Radiological Protection Board, "although [thoriated gas mantles] were widely available a few years ago, they are not any more. Morss, Lester R., Edelstein Norman M., and Fuger Jean. See A. J. Freeman and G. H. Lander, ed., Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of the Actinides (1984); S. Cotton, Lanthanides and Actinides (1991). They can form at normal pressure between room temperature and its melting point, 640. The following are examples of Einsteinium halides: Es2O. [150] Yellowed lenses may be restored to their original colourless state by lengthy exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation. The halogens are highly reactive nonmetallic elements. Overview Molybdenum was one of the first metals to be discovered by a modern chemist. [18] It is one of only four radioactive elements (along with bismuth, protactinium and uranium) that occur in large enough quantities on Earth for a standard atomic weight to be determined. These reaction conditions are rather mild and require monazite sand with a particle size under 45m. Others on this list are available by regulation to professionals in industry, medicine, and science: Radioactivity exists in nature, but radionuclides can cause radioactive contamination and radiation poisoning if they find their way into the environment or an organism is over-exposed. The type of potential damage depends on the type and energy of the emitted radiation. Swedish chemist, Thorium also appears in the 1864 table by British chemist. Other precious metals are gold, silver, and platinum. [136], The low demand makes working mines for extraction of thorium alone not profitable, and it is almost always extracted with the rare earths, which themselves may be by-products of production of other minerals. It is a silvery metal, with a melting point of 637. 229mTh has the lowest known excitation energy of any isomer,[29] measured to be 7.60.5eV. When attacked by air, yellow film then black coating develops, it is a mix of oxide and nitride. What is Radiation? The fluorides, hydroxides and oxalates of actinides have low solubilities. Radioactive decay is a property of several naturally occurring elements as well as of artificially produced isotopes of the elements. In natural thorium-containing waters, organic thorium complexes usually occur in concentrations orders of magnitude higher than the inorganic complexes, even when the concentrations of inorganic ligands are much greater than those of organic ligands.[61]. Chichester, West Sussex, England; Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006. Due to its being isotypic with uranium dioxide, these two common actinide dioxides can form solid-state solutions and the name of the mineral changes according to the ThO2 content. ", On 16 June 2023 Chinas National Nuclear Safety Administration issued a license to the Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics (SINAP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences to begin operating the TMSR-LF1, 2 MWt liquid fuel thorium-based molten salt experimental reactor which was completed in August 2021. General Properties and Reactions of The Actinides is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts. With a standard reduction potential of 1.90V for the Th4+/Th couple, it is somewhat more electropositive than zirconium or aluminium. The exception is actinium, which has fewer crystalline phases. Tetrabenzylthorium, Th(CH2C6H5)4, and tetraallylthorium, Th(CH2CH=CH2)4, are known, but their structures have not been determined. Radium is a silvery white metal that does not occur free in nature. Alpha particles produce large numbers of ions because of their collisions and near collisions with atoms, while traveling through matter. l] (nuclear physics) A luminous metallic element, such as actinium, radium, or uranium, that spontaneously and continuously emits radiation capable in some degree of penetrating matter impervious to ordinary light. [66] It is unstable in air and decomposes in water or at 190C. The Actinide series contains elements with atomic numbers 89 to 103 and is in the sixth period and the third group of the periodic table. Mag-Thor alloys (also called thoriated magnesium) found use in some aerospace applications, though such uses have been phased out due to concerns over radioactivity. Trivalent Actinides can be separated from slightly acidic solutions as phosphates, mildly acidic solutions as oxalates, strongly acidic solutions as fluorides, and from basic solutions as hydroxides or hydrous oxides. Cotton, Simon. Thorium is light silver and tarnishes olive gray when it is exposed to air, forming thorium dioxide; it is moderately soft and malleable and has a high melting point. The interaction of Actinides when radioactive with different types of phosphors will produce pulses of light. [171] If a thorium-containing object has been chewed or sucked, it loses 0.4% of thorium and 90% of its dangerous daughters to the body. This uncontrolled energy eventually leads to an explosion, which is the basis of the atomic bomb. [141], High thorium concentrations are needed in nuclear applications. [37][38], A thorium atom has 90 electrons, of which four are valence electrons. [134] They concluded that a 233U-fired bomb would be a very potent weapon, but it bore few sustainable "technical advantages" over the contemporary uraniumplutonium bombs,[135] especially since 233U is difficult to produce in isotopically pure form. Sometimes the longest-lived half-life of a radionuclide is not the most useful or affordable. Thorium is more abundant than uranium, and can satisfy world energy demands for longer. All elements past Uranium are man-made. The metals tarnish readily in air. This article was most recently revised and updated by, https://www.britannica.com/science/radioactive-series, Massachusetts Institute of Technology - Radioactive Decay Series. [34][117], Most thorium applications use its dioxide (sometimes called "thoria" in the industry), rather than the metal. The 241-Americium isotope is used as ionizing sources for smoke detectors. Actinium and protactinium occur as decay products of certain thorium and uranium isotopes. no. But apart of that, most of regular elements can be made radioactive - either artificially by inducing of the nuclear reactions or they have natural radioactive isotopes. Scientists predict there may be islands of stability in the periodic table, where superheavy transuranium elements may be more stable (although still radioactive) than some lighter elements.This list is sorted by increasing atomic number. Fertiliser (phosphate) industry Building industry Recycling Another NORM issue relates to radon exposure in homes, particularly those built on granitic ground. The solubility of Actinide hydroxides or hydrous oxides in strong ammonium carbonate solutions allow the separation or Uranium and Thorium from other members of the Ammonium hydroxide group, such as Fe, Ti, Al and other rare earth metals. Actinium is a soft, silver-colored metal that glows pale blue in the dark because the radioactivity ionizes air. This reflected the belief at that time that thorium and the rare-earth metals were divalent. They react with boiling water or dilute acid to release hydrogen gas. Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. (2021, February 16). [51] It is somewhat hygroscopic and reacts readily with water and many gases;[52] it dissolves easily in concentrated nitric acid in the presence of fluoride. This compound has a melting point of 3300C (6000F), the highest of all known oxides; only a few substances have higher melting points. It is ductile, malleable, and capable of taking a high polish. [111] The newly discovered phenomenon of radioactivity excited scientists and the general public alike. Because of this, thorium is a potentially attractive alternative to uranium in mixed oxide fuels to minimise the generation of transuranics and maximise the destruction of plutonium. [13] Its stability is attributed to its closed nuclear subshell with 142 neutrons. The actinides are favored for these reactions because they readily undergo nuclear reactions, releasing incredible amounts of energy. [143] Thorium in mantles, though still common, has been progressively replaced with yttrium since the late 1990s. Dordrecht: Springer, 2006. At the end of the neptunium series, for example, lead-209 undergoes negative beta decay to bismuth-209. Describe what is happening during a beta particle equation. Iridium-192 is an example of a radioisotope prepared in this manner. Check ourencyclopedia for a gloss on thousands of topics from biographies to the table of elements. Uranium What is It? - New Mexico Bureau of Geology & Mineral Resources [128][129][130] India has projected meeting as much as 30% of its electrical demands through thorium-based nuclear power by 2050. [168] Exposure to an aerosol of thorium, such as contaminated dust, can lead to increased risk of cancers of the lung, pancreas, and blood, as lungs and other internal organs can be penetrated by alpha radiation. All Actinides form oxides with different oxidation states. Hydrogen peroxide precipitates Pu+4, Th+4, Ce+4, U+4, Np+4 and Pa+4. Many times a beta particle is small enough that its charge could be ignored during calculations. It occurs because ThO2: Ce acts as a catalyst for the recombination of free radicals that appear in high concentration in a flame, whose deexcitation releases large amounts of energy. The following are examples of Californium halides: CfCl. [56] For example, when treated with potassium fluoride and hydrofluoric acid, Th4+ forms the complex anion [ThF6]2 (hexafluorothorate(IV)), which precipitates as an insoluble salt, K2[ThF6] (potassium hexafluorothorate(IV)). Naturally occurring radioactive materials form and decay in series or steps of radioactive . [43], Thorium is a highly reactive and electropositive metal.
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